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از جمله سیستم های مقاوم در برابر بار جانبی، قابهای مهار بندی شده هم محور می باشد. درصورتیکه اتصال بین اعضای مختلف این نوع قاب به صورت مفصلی باشد از آن با نام قاب ساده (قاب مفصلی) با مهار بندی هم محور نام برده می شود. در قابهای با مهار بندی هم محور، محور تیرها ستونها و اعضای مهاری در یک نقطه مشترک با هم تلاقی می کنند. هسته مقاوم خرپایی یا شبکه مقاوم خرپایی عامل پایداری سیستم قاب ساده می باشد. ملزومات تشکیل شبکه خرپایی عناصر قائم یا همان ستون ها، عناصر قطری مورب یا همان مهار بندها و تیرها اگر سیستم مهار بندی دارای مهار بندی هایی باشد که با تیر اندر کنش دارند مانند سیتم مهار بندی هفتی وهشتی می باشد. در این نوع از قاب ها اعضای مقاوم در برابر بارهای جانبی، نیروی جانبی را از طریق عملکرد محوری اعضاء به زمین انتقال می دهند و به دلیل همین عملکرد محوری اعضاء این نوع از قاب ها دارای سختی زیاد و تغییر مکان کم می باشند.
مهار بندهای هم محور به طور گستردهای جهت تأمین سختی و مقاومت در ساختمانهای کوتاه و متوسط جهت مقاومت در برابر باد و زلزله به کار می روند. جهت پاسخهای لرزه ای مناسب این مهار بندها باید به گونه ای طراحی شوند که به مقاومت و شکل پذیری مناسبی دست یابند. در روشی که سازگار با فلسفه طراحی لرزه ای مقاوم می باشد توقع بر پاسخهای غیر الاستیک در مهار بندهای هم محور در خلال زلزله های شدید می باشد. طراحی مهاربندهای قطری هم محور باید به نحوی باشد که توانایی تحمل تغییر شکلهای پلاستیک و قابلیت اتلاف انرژی در
حالتی پایدار به صورت کمانش در فشار و تسلیم در کشش را داشته باشد. طراحی صحیح به نحوی می باشد که اطمینان حاصل شود که تغییر شکلهای پلاستیک تنها در مهار بندها اتفاق می افتد و اتصالات هیچ گونه آسیبی نمی بینند. بنابراین اجازه داده می شود که سازه قادر به تحمل زمین لرزه های قوی بدون از دست دادن مقاومت ثقلی خود باشد. زلزله های گذشته نشان داده است که رفتار شرح داده شده تحقق پیدا نخواهد کرد مگر آنکه قابهای مهار بندی و اتصالات آنها به طور صحیح طراحی شوند.
مهار بندهای هم محور مطابق شکل (1-1) به شکل ضربدری، قطری، K، هفتی (شورن) و هشتی (شورن) می باشند.
- انواع مهار بندهای هم محور
مطابق آئین نامه 2800 ایران ]1[، استفاده از مهاربندهای هم محور در ساختمانهای تا ارتفاع 50 متر، در قابهای با اتصالات مفصلی و برای ساختمانهای بلندتر در قابهای مختلط مجاز می باشد. سهولت اجرا و هزینه های پائین اتصالات مفصلی نسبت به اتصالات گیردار موجب استفاده افزون تر این نوع از مهاربندی ها به عنوان عناصر مقاوم در برابر بارهای جانبی شده است. پائین بودن میزان مصرف فولاد در هر متر مربع این سازه ها در مقایسه با سازه های خمشی از دیگر مزیت آنها است. بعلاوه حساسیت کمتر این قابها به میزان و کیفیت جوش یکی دیگر از محاسن این قابها نسبت به سازه های قاب خمشی است.
در کنار محاسن سازه های با مهاربندی هم محور باید از شکل پذیری کم آنها در مقایسه با سازه های قاب خمشی، به عنوان نقطه ضعف اصلی این نوع از قابها یاد کرد. سیستم مهار بندی هم محور با تحریک جانبی تغییر شکل می دهد در این حالت یکی از قطرها در فشار قرار می گیرد و در خلال زلزله با افزایش سطح انرژی وارد بر سیستم زمانیکه نیرو در قطری تحت فشار به حدود R برابر نیروی زمان طراحی می رسد این المان دچار تسلیم و کمانش می شود. با تشکیل مفصل پلاستیک روی این عضو سختی و ظرفیت باربری آن کاهش می یابد، زمانیکه در سیکلهای بعدی این المان مجدداً در فشار قرار می گیرد به دلیل آسیبهای ایجاد شده قبلی و کاهش سختی و مقاومت ناشی از آن دچار کمانش بیشتری می شود و تغییر شکلهای خمیری در محل مفصل پلاستیک ایجاد شده تشدید می گردد. براساس تستهای بار گذاری لرزه ای سیستم های مهاربندی هم محور عنوان می شود سختی و مقاومت این مهاربندها پس از چند سیکل سنگین بارگذاری لرزه ای به 25% تا 35% شرایط اولیه تنزل می یابد. با استناد به موارد مشروح اگرچه مهاربندهای هم محور تحت بارهای نه چندان بزرگ و در محدوده جابه جایی های کوچک مقاومت مناسبی از خود نشان می دهند ولی در بارگذاریهای سنگین لرزه ای استعداد زیادی به کمانش و ناپایداری دارند. به عبارتی قابلیت اعتماد پذیری لرزه ای آنها مناسب نمی باشد. شکل پذیری از رفتار غیر الاستیک اعضا و اتصالات سازه حاصل می شود. رفتار غیر الاستیک در سازه های خمشی با تسلیم شدن دورترین تارمقطع شروع شده و تا تشکیل کامل مفصل پلاستیک ادامه پیدا می کند. تشکیل مفاصل پلاستیک در نقاط مختلف سازه موجب جذب انرژی و تامین شکل پذیری سازه می گردد. در مقابل در سازه های با مهار بندی هم محور انتقال نیرو جانبی از طریق نیروی محوری اعضاء انجام می شود. نیروی محوری موجب کمانش مهار بندهای فشاری قبل از رسیدن آن به مرحله غیرالاستیک و جذب انرژی می باشد. در نتیجه منحنی هیسترزیس سازه های با مهاربندی هم محور کم عرض و میزان شکل پذیری آنها پائین می باشد.
سرعت باز سازی از جمله فاکتورهای مهم در ارزیابی سیستم های مقاوم در برابر زلزله است که در سالهای اخیر مورد مورد توجه فراوان قرار گرفته است. سازه های با مهاربندی هم محور، بدلیل محدود شدن خسارات سازه ای آنها به اعضاء و اتصالات مهاربندها، در مقایسه با سازهای خمشی از سرعت بازسازی بالا و هزینه پایینی برخوردارند. به عنوان جمع بندی محاسن سازه های با مهاربند هم محور را می توان به شرح زیر بیان نمود:
بازسازی و تعمیر این سازه ها، عموماً به اعضاء و اتصالات مهاربند خلاصه می شود و در نتیجه نواحی بازسازی آنها محدود، کم هزینه و سرعت بازسازی زیاد است.
حساسیت عملکرد این سازه ها به میزان و کیفیت جوش نسبت به دیگر سازه های فولادی کمتر است و در نتیجه قابلیت اعتماد آنها بیشتر خواهد بود.
خسارات غیر سازه ای این سازه ها در مقایسه با سازه های خمشی کمتر و بهره برداری آنها بلافاصله بعد از زلزله امکان پذیر خواهد بود.
مقاوم سازی سازه های فولادی یا بتنی با مهاربند هم محور به عنوان یک راه حل ساده و اقتصادی همیشه مورد توجه است. فراوانی این سازه ها باعث شده است که تجربه پیمانکاران ساختمانی در ساخت این سازه ها بیشتر باشد. میزان کمتر مصرف فولاد در هر متر مربع این سازه ها در مقایسه با سازه های قاب خمشی نیز از جمله نکات مثبت این سازه ها می باشد.
علیرغم محاسن زیاد سازه های با مهار بند هم محور، شکل پذیری کم آنها موجب شده است که استفاده از آنهامحدود باشد. بدیهی است، هر گونه اصلاحی که منجر به افزایش شکل پذیری این سازه ها گردد، امکان بهره مندی از ویژگیهای مثبت آنها را فراهم خواهد کرد. در دو دهه اخیر تحقیقات و پژوهشهای گسترده ای به منظور افزایش شکل پذیری مهار بند های هم محور انجام شده است. در هریک از این تحقیقات کوشش شده است، که با اصلاح اتصالات یا تعبیه عضو شکل پذیر در مهار بندهای هم محور شکل پذیری آنها افزایش یابد. به اختصار پژوهشهای صورت گرفته در این زمینه را می توان به سه دسته تقسیم کرد:
الف- استفاده از اتصالات اصطکاکی در مهاربندهای هم محور.
ب- استفاده از غلاف به منظور افزایش بار کمانش مهاربند.
ج- استفاده از عضو شکل پذیر در محلی از مهار بند.
UNIVERSITÉ AZAD ISLAMIQUE
BRANCHE TÉHÉRAN CENTRALE
FACULTÉ DES LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES
EN VUE DE L’OBTENTION DE LA MAÎTRISE EN
LANGUE ET LITTÉRATURE FRANçAISES
Figure du temps chez Le Clézio
(Désert, La Ritournelle de la faim, L’Africain)
SOUS LA DIRECTION DE:
Monsieur le Docteur Ali Abassi
PROFESSEUR CONSEILLER :
Monsieur le Docteur Babak Moine
décembre 2013
برای رعایت حریم خصوصی نام نگارنده پایان نامه درج نمی شود
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
ژان ماری گوستاولوکلزیو از جمله رمان نویسان مشهور این قرن است . وی رمان هایی می نویسد که در آنها بیش از پیش دلزدگی خود را از جامعه مدرن بیان می کند.سبک او به نوعی خویشتن داری نزدیک می شود و مضمون ها بسیط تر می شوند.وی همچون قهرمانان داستانهایش پیوسته در سفر است اما هرجا باشد همچون شاهدی بر آدم و آدمیت است.انسان همواره ترس از گذر زمان دارد؛و در برابر آن عکس العمل ای گوناگونی برای دانستن آن از خود بروز می دهد مانند :نوستالژی، دلهره،افسوس و طغیان.این ها عکس العمل هایی هستند که در تمام انواع ادبی مانند رمان،تئاتر و… بیان می شوند.زمان نه تنها در ادبیات استوار است بلکه محوری است که در اطراف آن تصاویری که ازتخیل نویسنده ظاهر شده است ،قرار دارد.نویسنده مانند دیگر انسان ها ترس از زمان دارد اما آنچه که وی را از دیگران متمایز می سازد توانایی وی برای بیان کردن ترسهایش به وسیله ی تصاویر است.ما برای بیان این فرضیه از متد ژیلبر دوران استفاده کرده ایم تا ببینیم آیا نویسنده توانسته بر ترس خود غلبه کند یا خیر. از این رو در فصل اول به این نکته می پردازیم که آیا لوکلزیو نوعی ترس از گذر زمان را بیان کرده است؛و در فصل بعدی خواهیم دید که آیا لوکلزیو توانسته در برابر این گذر زمان پیروز شود یا خیر.از آنجائیکه لوکلزیو از جمله نویسندگانی است که جایزه نوبل را به خود اختصاص داده است و نحوه نگارشی متفاوت و کاملا نو نسبت به جهان پیرامون خود دارد.نگرشی متاثر از دو دنیای متفاوت غرب و آفریقا.در رمان های وی زبان به جای آنکه وسیله ارتباطی میان من و جهان باشد وسیله ی بیان حس هاست و دیگر قیود زمانی و مکانی را نمی توان رعایت کرد .به همین دلیل در رمان هایش می بینیم که زمان گاهی گذشته و گاهی حال است و ظاهرا هیچ دلیلی برای این جابجایی دیده نمی شود جز اینکه آیا لوکلزیو نوعی ترس از گذر زمان را بیان می کند یا می تواند در برابر این گذر زمان پیروز شود.
Introduction
J.M.G Le Clézio est un auteur de l’Afrique. Il fluctuante entre Afrique et Occident. Son histoire personnelle témoigne de l’ambiguïté de sa situation. Il va découvrir, dès l’enfance, l’Afrique et sa colonisation. Son écriture aussi fluctuante entre deux mondes. Le Clézio met en place un texte qui se cache, qui résiste. Pour lui la parole doit susciter des questions pour être efficace, elle ne doit pas être accessible immédiatement. Il ne cherche pas à produire un effet stylistique, mais plutôt à atteindre une vérité de parole. Il condamne le style qu’il considère comme un mensonge. Il vise une langue spontanée, vivante, semblable à un souffle. La parole retenue est un élément essentiel dans la poétique le clézienne. La parole conteuse crée une médiation, elle peut se faire le porte-parole d’une mémoire collective. C’est une parole vivante, le conteur doit conserver et restituer le ton de ce qui est dit. Le Clézio situe ses récits dans des lieux de culture orale comme l’Afrique.
Le désert s’impose comme le lieu de la révélation. Il est celui des origines, il s’impose comme un infini de silences. Son image, omniprésente dans l’œuvre de Le Clézio, symbolise la quête du silence, de l’origine. L’écrivain vise une langue spontanée, vivante, semblable au souffle du vent du désert. Le désert purifie par son silence. La richesse de la langue vient pour lui du métissage, qui seul permet d’entendre tout ce qu’il y a dans les mots. Il cherche à retrouver cette parole vive dans sa propre écriture. Par les langues étrangères, Le Clézio dévoile le secret du langage, son écriture requiert la participation du lecteur qui doit écouter le texte et non plus seulement le lire. Il y a ainsi dans l’écriture le clézienne une forte dimension sociale et idéologique. Le Clézio s’adresse au public occidental, sa fonction de dénonciation revêt alors toute son importance. L’écriture est, pour lui, un de ses seuls moyens d’action, « Je ne suis qu’un écrivain, alors que faire ? J’écris ». L’écriture de l’Afrique est pour lui un mode de dénonciation de l’Occident. Sa mise en scène des cultures orales est à envisager comme un effet de miroir inversé des cultures dominantes de l’écrit. L’écriture des cultures orales est ainsi, pour Le Clézio, le mode d’un retour à l’imaginaire, aux sources de son écriture.
Le Clézio dans ses œuvres essaie de découvrir ce côté inconnu de la vie où il est possible de trouver le salut, où le regard s’affole de tant voir, où l’ouïe perçoit les bruits les plus ténus; où les mots sont inutiles et où les gestes uniquement comptent. Il poursuive une quête, de rechercher un même vrai sens à la vie, une qualité essentielle, celle du regard, un regard libérateur, nu, sans aucun préjugé; un regard que le merveilleux enseigne bien plus que la réalité scientifique.
La conscience du temps est donc présente dans l’œuvre de Le Clézio. Le temps paraissait immense, très lent, avec par instants de drôles d’accélérations incompréhensibles, des vertiges, comme si on traversait le courant d’un fleuve. Le temps apparait pour l’homme, comme une réalité négative en lui-même, pour autant qu’il soit lié au devenir, à la douleur de l’existence et à la mort.
« Depuis toujours, le temps a été source de l’angoisse, parce qu’il est synonyme de la mort. En effet, il ne cesse pas de s’écouler et conduite l’homme vers la fin de son voyage terrestre, passage obligé de la condition humaine. L’homme s’est toujours confronté à la mort. Il faut dire que l’homme est temporel : le temps apparaît comme inséparable de la condition humaine. Il domine la vie de sa présence, il impose ses effets. »1
Le temps va alors exercer une puissance influence sur l’imagination de Le Clézio. Son omniprésence annonce qu’il occupe une place essentielle dans l’œuvre de Le Clézio. Nous voulons préparer une étude des figures du temps chez Le Clézio.
Dans cette partie, comme l’instrument de recherche, nous voulons présenter la méthode critique de Gilbert Durand. Cependant, il faut signaler que notre travail n’envisage pas une étude totale du système durandien. Elle est une petite introduction à une grande recherche appliquant cette méthode. Notre étude, fondée sur la notion de la critique, n’est qu’un travail élémentaire pour la compréhension d’une pensée.
La base et le principe de la pensée durandienne sont profondément liés aux théories de l’épistémologue et critique Gaston Bachelard.
[1] ABBASSI, Ali, La Peur du Temps chez Hugo, Université SHAHID BEHESHTI, 2004, p. 2.
Le dernier insiste sur le rôle important de la rêverie et de l’imagination dans la création des œuvres littéraires. En effet, Bachelard et Durand ont toujours eu un regard particulier sur l’image. D’après eux, les images poétiques ont un système qui est définit par l’imaginaire. Ce dernier se base sur les images originelles sans lesquelles les manifestations de la vie et des valeurs vitales seraient impossible. Ces images sont celles qui sont inspirées par les matières fondamentales, par les mouvements principaux, comme monter et descendre, et par les quatre éléments fondamentaux : feu, eau, terre, air.
Dans son ouvrage : Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire. Introduction à l’archétypologie générale, paru pour la première fois en 1960, Gilbert Durand présente sa démarche. L’ouvrage a pour objet de définir le sémantisme primitif des images et d’établir une ” classification des grands symboles de l’imagination “. Il établit que les produits de l’imagination ont une signification intrinsèque, qui détermine notre représentation du monde. Il définit l’imagination comme « la racine de toute pensée. »1
[1] CHELEBOURG, Christian, L’imaginaire littéraire, Des archétypes à la poétique du sujet, Paris, Nathan, 2000, p. 57.
Les réalités géographiques et cosmiques, les structures sociales, la conscience de la fécondité féminine, de la force virile, toutes ces données objectives de la perception se mêlent à nos pulsions profondes pour constituer notre représentation du monde. Entre ces deux dimensions de la réalité, l’une objective, l’autre subjective, l’imagination opère un perpétuel va-et-vient, un échange constant, auquel Gilbert Durand donne le nom de “trajet anthropologique.” Ce trajet définit l’imaginaire :
« Finalement, l’imaginaire n’est rien d’autre que ce trajet dans lequel la représentation de l’objet se laisse assimiler et modeler par les impératifs pulsionnels du sujet, et dans lequel réciproquement, comme l’a magistralement montré Piaget, les représentations subjectives s’expliquent « par les accommodations antérieures du sujet » au milieu objectif.»1
D’après Durand, toutes pensée repose sur des images, qui n’ont rien à voir ni avec la mémoire, ni aves la perception.
1 DURAND, Gilbert, Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire, Introduction à l’archétypologie générale, Paris, Dunod, 1992, p.38.
En effet, la conception de l’anthropologie de l’imaginaire que Gilbert Durand a construit s’est fait sur cette constatation qu’à l’origine de toute culture, il y a une peur essentielle qui est la peur de la fuite du temps. Ce que Durand appelle le Chronos dévorant, que toutes les productions, pratiquement imaginaires et intellectuelles peuvent relever des réponses à cette fuite du temps.
En réalité, le principe classification de Durand est la bipartition des symboles entre deux grands régimes : “diurne et nocturne”. Ces régimes représentent deux manières de lutter contre le temps et l’angoisse de mort. Fondamentalement antithétique, le régime diurne oppose deux grandes catégories d’images, les unes qui signifient l’angoisse devant le temps, les autres la volonté de vaincre celle-ci et de s’élever au-dessus de la condition humaine. Parmi les premières, on distingue trois types de symboles représentant les visages du temps. D’abord des symboles thériomorphes, des images animales qui signifient soit l’agitation et le changement, soit l’agressivité et la cruauté. Ensuite viennent des symboles nyctomorphes, des images de la nuit qui transposent en terme d’obscurité la craint engendrée par le temps. Il groupe les images de l’impureté, de l’eau noire, mais aussi celle de l’aveuglement. Enfin, des symboles catamorphes, des images de la chute, mais aussi des images du sang, du vertige, de la pesanteur ou de l’écrasement. Ces symboles disent la déchéance de l’homme, chassé du paradis et devenu mortel.
À toutes ces images des temps, valorisés négativement, s’oppose le symbolisme symétrique de la victoire sur le destin et sur la mort. Il constitue le deuxième type d’images du régime diurne. À l’intérieure de celui-ci, Gilbert Durand distingue de nouveau trois catégories de symboles. En premier lieu, des symboles ascensionnels, par lesquels l’homme atteint à une souveraineté céleste, on trouve ici les images de l’élévation, de l’aile, de l’ange, du géant. Puis, des symboles spectaculaires, ils groupent les symboles de la lumière et les organes de la lumière : le soleil, l’œil, le verbe divin. Pour finir, des symboles diaïrétique, symboles de la puissance et de pureté qui se composent des armes et des insignes de la victoire, de l’accession à la transcendance : flèche, glaive, etc.
Les structures mystiques et synthétiques constituent le régime nocturne. Le premier cherche à nier le temps sur le mode de l’antiphrase, et le deuxième à s’en accommoder, à tirer parti de sa nature cyclique.
Dans les structures mystiques les symboles ne font plus vivre le monde en termes de conflit, comme dans l’antithèse, mais visent, au contraire, à réduire ses dangers, à les euphémiser au point de les nier, de les inverser, comme par antiphrase. Ils se répartissent en deux groupes : un groupe d’images de l’inversion et un groupe d’images de l’intimité. Ces structures de mystiques conjuguent une volonté d’union avec le monde et le goût de l’intimité secrète. Elles reçoivent également l’épithète d’antiphrasiques, pour souligner que leur fonctionnement générale est celui de l’antiphrase.
Dans les structures synthétiques ou (dramatiques) les symboles sont tous cycliques, ils sont animés par le désire de maîtriser le temps en utilisant ses rythmes propres. Pour y parvenir, ils s’orientent soit dans le sens de l’eternel retour, soit dans celui du progrès. Les cycles de l’éternel retour comportent une phase négative et une phase positive, la première étant interprétée comme nécessaire à l’avènement de la seconde, ce qui en euphémise la négativité. Dans les symboles progressistes, le dernier cycle « n’est qu’un cycle tronqué ou mieux une phase cyclique ultime emboîtant tous les autres cycles comme figures et ébauches de l’ultime procès. »1 Les symboles cycliques se présentent sous la forme de récits dramatiques, de mythes opérant la synthèse, la réconciliation si l’on préfère, d’images qui s’opposent dans les autres structures de l’imaginaire. Les modèles naturels de ces cycles sont les phrases de la lune et le cycle végétal des saisons.
Puisqu’ un travail constituant tous les deux régimes deviendra trop long pour un mémoire de maîtrise, notre travail se contente d’étudier les images du régime diurne de l’imaginaire.
[1] Ibid., p. 322.
Temps est un thème fréquent chez Le Clézio, Pour étudier ce concept chez Le Clézio, nous essaierons de voir, d’une part, si il prouve une certaine peur face à la fuite du temps ? Si oui, pourquoi ? D’une autre part, est- ce qu’il pourrait maîtriser la fuite du temps ? Si oui, comment ?
En tant que corpus, face à une immense production littéraire, il est à signaler que nous avons étudié une petite partie de l’œuvre romanesque de Le Clézio pour analyser des figures de l’imaginaire. Nous avons travaillé sur les ouvrages : La Ritournelle de la faim, Désert et L’Africain.
Ce travail comprend deux parties. Dans la première partie nous allons étudier les images négatives du régime diurne regroupées autour des symboles thériomorphes, nyctomorphes et enfin catamorphes. Et dans la partie suivante, nous allons voir si Le Clézio pourrait enfin montrer une victoire face à l’écoulement du temps. La réponse à cette question sera une analyse des images positives du régime diurne regroupées autour des symboles ascensionnels, spectaculaires et enfin les symboles de protection contre le temps.
I. LA FUITE DU TEMPS
I.I LES SYMBOLES THÉRIOMORPHES
Dans ce chapitre consacré aux symboles thériomorphes, nous allons présenter comment la bestialité se manifeste dans l’imaginaire de l’auteur. Dans l’imagination de Le Clézio, la peur, l’angoisse devant le temps et devant la mort se révèlent sous forme d’animal terrifiant.
Cette partie va montrer l’importance de l’archétype d’animal dans l’imagination de l’auteur. Nous considérons les images animalisées du soleil, de la lune, de l’air et du sel qui constituent les images chaotiques chez Le Clézio.
Islamic Azad University
Tehran Central Branch
Faculty of Foreign Languages
A Thesis
Submitted to the Department of Postgraduate Studies as a Partial Fulfilment For the Degree of Master of Arts in English Literature
Tracing Helene Cixous & Luce Irigaray’s Concepts on Female Characters of the Three Plays of Sam Shepard:
A Lie of The Mind, States of Shock & Buried Child
Adviser:
Dr. Shahram Kiaei
Reader:
Dr. Kian Soheil
Winter 2013
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Abstract
Repression, beating and abusing of women and regarding them as the “second sex” are issues that cannot be ignored. These affairs are also shown in vast dimension in post-modern American literature in which women characters are in search of “identity” and a way of liberty and freedom from patriarchal society to heal themselves but all their efforts lead to a life of “ambiguity” and nothing more; alike what women do and live in the real world. The question that comes to mind is that “what is the reason and what if there can be a solution?” This research is planned to have a feminist point of view on female characters of the three plays of Sam Shepard Buried Child, A Lie of the Mind and States of Shock. Due to the broad spectrum of the history of feminism, the methodology of this study focuses on Irigaray, a contemporary French feminist, theorist, psychoanalyst and critic of literature, through her ideas of “subjectivity”, “sexuality”, “language” and “desire”; And Helene Cixous Another French feminist and philosopher whose challenging theory of “Feminine Writing” are surveyed through this study. In the process of this research it is revealed that the belief in the theory of “transition of woman’s personality” is shared among all three thinkers and is experienced by women’s of Shepard’s plays in three social situational phases of “normal”, “sick” and “crisis”. However, the post-modern viewpoint of Shepard, Irigaray and Cixous, conveys that women fail in this transition and cannot achieve their “ego” in the modern era and their ambiguity remains with them. Finally the research concludes that literary writing and expression of problems are the part of solution which post-modernists show by criticizing “modernity”.
Keywords: transition, identity, subjectivity, literary therapy, Shepard, Cixous, Irigaray.
Acknowledgement
I am greatly beholden to a considerable number of people who genuinely assisted me during fulfilling this dissertation. I would like to show my gratitude to my caring advisor, Dr. Kiaei whose prompting and constructive feedbacks, encouragement, flexibility and confidence in my abilities lit my way during writing this research. I would also like to thank Dr. Soheil for his input through his classes which encouraged me to work on the subject matter of my interest. Here I should thank Prof. Sokhanvar for all his precious efforts for reviving English Literature in Iran and for his valuable courses and leadership through all years of my study and specially for introducing Dr. Bordbari as my referee who was encouraging to me. I am also indebted to Dr. Montakhabi who by giving precious insights on my subject was very helpful and for her extremely large heart and sentimental nature. She has been a wonderful role model, not only to me, but to many. Most importantly, I would like to thank my mom, my encouraging angel and my father, my symbol of faith, for being my biggest cheerleaders and for supporting me through all of my educational pursuits; And To my brother and sister, kambiz and sepideh, who were always there for me. A special thanks to my true friend Mr. Abtahi whose unconditional support came at a much needed time and he gave up his many weekends and evenings reading my work, truly being interested, giving comments and for never saying no.
Index
Chapter 1: Introduction. 1
1.1 General Background. 2
1.2 Statement of the Problem.. 9
1.2.1 Research Questions. 11
1.3 Objectives and Significance of the Study. 12
1.3.1 Significance of the Study. 12
1.3.2 Purpose of the Study. 13
1.4 Literature Review.. 14
1.5 Materials and Methodology. 16
1.5.1 Limitation and Delimitation. 19
1.6 Thesis Outline. 20
1.7 Definition of Key Terms. 21
Chapter 2: Transition of Female Characters. 24
2.1 Current of French Thought. 25
2.1.1 French Feminism.. 26
2.1.2 Psychology and French philosophers. 31
2.1.3 Interactions between French thought and German thought 33
2.1.4 The relation of Feminism and Marxism.. 37
2.1.5 Lacan’s and Foucault’s Structuralism.. 38
2.1.6 The role of Simone de Beauvoir in French Feminism.. 42
2.1.7 Manifestation of Postmodernism and Post-structuralism.. 44
2.2 Luce Irigaray. 45
2.2.1 Irigaray’s concepts about the “female character”. 47
2.2.1.1 “The Other Woman”. 48
2.2.1.2 “Sexual Difference”. 52
2.2.1.3 Psychological repressions of women identity in West culture. 55
2.2.1.3.1 Repression and Schizophrenia. 55
2.2.1.3.2 Deconstruction of Patriarchal philosophy. 57
2.2.1.3.3 Sexual organs. 58
2.3 Helene Cixous. 59
2.3.1 Cixous’s philosophy and concepts about the female character. 60
2.3.1.1 Poetic writings about woman’s character. 60
2.3.1.2 Re- Born Woman. 65
2.3.1.3 Feminine Writing. 66
2.4 American and French Feminist literary criticism and art criticism.. 67
2.4.1 First waves of feminism.. 69
2.4.2 Second waves of feminism and Cixous’s and Irigaray’s concepts. 70
2.5 Proposing the theory of transformation of woman’s personality from Irigaray’s and Cixous’s viewpoints 72
Chapter 3: Female Characters of the Buried Child. 77
3.1 “Buried Child”. 78
3.2 Discourse of Characters and Post-Modern Attitude of Shepard. 79
3.3 Construction of “Buried Child”. 81
3.4 Psychoanalysis of women characters. 81
3.4.1 The character of “Catholic Bride” or the notion of multi-phallus in Irigaray’s and Cixous’s concepts. 83
3.4.2 “Halie”: the hysteric and repressed character. 85
3.4.3 Orgasmic pleasure and the character of Shelly. 88
3.4.4 Rape or alienation to femininity. 89
3.4.5 “Woman’s body” speaks. 91
Chapter 4: Female Characters of A Lie of the Mind & States of Shock. 92
4.1 “A Lie of the Mind”. 93
in Shepard’s Viewpoint. 97
4.3 The personality of “beaten Beth”. 104
4.3.1 Beth’s anxiety-Freud’s and Irigaray’s “lack of orgasm”. 106
4.4 Irigaray’s dialectics in women characters. 109
4.4.1 The relation of mother-daughter (Meg and Beth) 110
4.5 Cixous’s literature therapy and dialogues of woman personality. 111
4.6 “Transition of Personality” in female characters of A Lie of the Mind. 112
4.6.1 “Sally”: Conservative and unrepressed personality. 112
4.6.2 Meg and Lorraine: Non-Reborn Mothers. 113
4.7 “States of Shock”. 115
4.7.1 “White Woman, lack of male’s sex organ”. 117
4.7.2 “War, the absence woman identity”. 119
Chapter 5: Conclusion. 121
5.1 Summing up. 122
5.2 Findings. 126
5.2.1 Research Questions. 127
5.3 Works Cited. 131
Chapter One:
Chapter 1: Introduction
|
1.1 General Background
Sam Shepard (5 November 1943- ) is “the greatest American playwright of his generation” (New York Magazine). In his high school years he began acting and writing poetry. In 1963, he moved to New York City where he met Charlie Mingus who introduced him to a jazz group. In these years he became familiar with Cinema too, he was especially interested in Western movies, which had a great impact on his personality.
His father’s personality and his life that is full of immigrations are the factors, which influenced his works. He loved his father so much and had a very friendly relationship with him and maybe the reason for such a relationship is the several travels, which he had with his father.
In the sixties, American art was undergoing some basic changes, which were related to autonomy of art and literature from their old traditions; Shepard was also under the influences of these changes. In this period Broadway theatre was put aside and a new theatre was created with the aim of reconstructing society.
It was in 1960 that he began his work as a postmodernist in American theatres. Many critics believe that Sam Shepard is the most enjoyable and excitable contemporary playwright in America, but little can be said about what exactly makes his plays interesting and exciting.
Shepard deliberately focuses on the issue of family and in this way he somehow psychoanalyzes the system of family in America. He believes that the reason of his emphasis on family issue is that 1960s was a period of family crisis in America and he himself was greatly affected by this crisis. He was raised up in an environment where “men” had the superior and dominant role and “Alcohol” and “violence” were the main threats for Family’s foundation. He clearly stated that the biologic and blood relations between brothers and sisters in a family were always interesting for him (Callens 27-39) which can be seen in Buried Child and A Lie of the Mind.
Shepard, who was grown up in a patriarchal family, was always curious and interested in woman’s personality: therefore when he brings a female character in his plays he is actually showing us the unconscious part of his mind. For this reason in the process of writing he does not usually hesitate and he writes spontaneously. He said that he completely wrote “Buried Child” in a spontaneous mode.
It can be concluded that he portrays women’s characters through his psychological vision and intuition. In this regard he says:
انگیزش یکی از عوامل کلیدی است که تعیین کنندهی موفقیت یا شکست زبانآموزان در محیطهای EFLیا ESL میباشد. بنابراین مسئولیت سنگینی بر دوش پژوهشگرهای حوزهی انگیزش قرار دارد تا معلمان را در جهت ایجاد انگیزش در زبانآموزان، بالا بردن، و حفظ آن یاری کنند. تحقیق دورنیه و سیزر (1998) در کشور مجارستان اولین مطالعهی مهم روی راهبردهای انگیزشی بود. بعد از آنها مطالعات اندکی در این حوزه انجام شد. در این تحقیق 250 نفر معلم ایرانی شرکت کردهاند و از آنها خواسته شده است که دو نوع پرسشنامه شامل 48 راهبرد انگیزشی را به این شرح کامل کنند: (1) نگرش آنها دربارهی میزان اهمیت راهبردهای انگیزشی (پرسشنا مهی میزان اهمیت) و (2) نگرش آنها دربارهی میزان استفاده از راهبردهای انگیزشی در کلاس درس (پرسشنامه ی میزان استفاده)، در ضمن نسخهی فارسی پرسشنامهها به معلمان تحویل داده شده است. نتایج بدست آمده از تحلیل آماری پرسشنامهها مشخص کرد که : راهبردهای انگیزشی ” نمایش رفتار مناسب از طرف معلمان” و “ آشنا کردن زبان آموزان با ارزشهای مربوط به زبان انگلیسی” در هر دو پرسشنامه به ترتیب در رتبههای اول و دهم ( آخرین رتبه ) قرار گرفتهاند. در میان 10 ماکرو راهبرد انگیزشی استخراج شده از هر دو پرسشنامه، راهبردهای اشاره شده در بالا وابسته به فرهنگ خاصی نیستند و در اکثر فرهنگهای کشورهای مختلف به میزان مشابهی قابل رویت هستند، ولی تکنیکهای انگیزشی از قبیل: “بوجود آوردن محیطی شاداب در کلاس درس” به نظر میرسد وابسته به فرهنگ خاص کشورها هستند و میزان اهمیت و کاربرد آنها برای فرهنگهای کشور های مختلف، متفاوت است. علاوه بر این، مقایسهی نتایج پرسشنامههای “میزان اهمیت” و “میزان استفاده” مشخص کرد که نگرش معلمان نسبت به اهمیت راهبردهای انگیزشی هیچ رابطهای با نگرش آنها نسبت به میزان کاربرد واقعی این راهبردها در کلاس درس ندارد.
Abstract
Motivation is one of the key factors that determine language learners’ success/ failure in ESL/EFL situation. Thus, it is a major challenge for language motivation researchers to help teachers elicit, enhance, and sustain students’ motivation. Dörnyei and Csizér’s (1998) research in Hungary was the first important study on motivational strategies. Following Dörnyei and Csizér (1998), a few similar studies have been carried out in this realm. 250 Iranian EFL teachers participated in this study and they were asked to rate a list of comprehensive 48 motivational strategies in terms of (1) how much importance, Importance Questionnaire, they attached to these and (2) how often, Frequency Questionnaire, they implemented them in their real teaching practice. The Persian version of the questionnaires was used in this study. The results provide evidence that some strategies like “displaying appropriate teacher behaviors” and “familiarising learners with L2-related values” were ranked first and tenth respectively in both questionnaires. Among ten macro-strategies derived from both questionnaires, some scales like two aforementioned ones are culture specific and can transfer across cultures but some other scales like “Creating a pleasant classroom climate” are culture dependent and vary from culture to culture. Also, comparing the results of two questionnaires revealed that teachers’ attitudes to the Importance of motivational strategies have no relationship with their answers to their actual Frequency of use in real EFL classes.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Overview 2
1.2.Statement of the Problem 3
1.3.Significance of the Study 5
1.4.Research Questions 6
1.5.Definition of Key Terms 7
1.6. Limitations of the study 8
CHAPTER TWO- REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10
2.1.Overview 11
2.2.Conceptualizations of Motivation 11
2.3.The Influential Theories of L2 Motivation 13
2.3.1. The Social-Psychological Period (1959-1990) 14
2.3.1.1. Gardner’s Social-Psychological Theory 14
2.3.1.2. Keller’s (1983) Motivational-Design Model 20
2.3.2. The Cognitive-Situated Period (1990-2000) 21
2.3.2.1.Dörnyei’s (1994) Framework of L2 Motivation 22
2.3.2.2. Williams and Burden’s (1997) Model of L2 Motivation 25
2.3.2.3. Task Motivation 27
2.3.2.4. L2 Motivation Expectancy-Value Theories 28
2.3.2.4.1. The Concepts of Self-Confidence and Linguistic Self-Confidence 29
2.3.2.4.2. Language Anxiety 31
2.3.2.4.3. Attribution Theory of L2 Learning 32
2.3.2.5. Achievement Motivation Theory 33
2.3.2.6. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) 34
2.3.3. The Process-Oriented Period (2000 Onwards) 36
2.3.3.1.Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) Process Model of L2 Motivation 36
2.4. Significance of Motivation/ L2 Motivation 39
2.5. Types of Motivation and their Role in SL/FL Acquisition 40
2.5.1. Integrative Motivation 40
2.5.2. Instrumental Motivation 42
2.5.3. Intrinsic Motivation 43
2.5.3.1. The Intrinsic Needs of Students 44
2.5.3.1.1. The Need for Autonomy and Self-Determination 45
2.5.3.1.2. The Need for Competence 45
2.5.3.1.3. The Need for Belonging and Relatedness 46
2.5.3.1.4. The Need for Self-Esteem 46
2.5.3.1.5. The Need for Involvement and Enjoyment 46
2.5.3.2. Achieving Intrinsic Motivation in L2 Learning 47
2.5.3.3. The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in L2 Learning 47
2.5.4. Extrinsic Motivation 48
2.6. The L2 Motivational Self System 51
2.7. Motivational Strategies 53
2.7.1. Creating Basic Motivational Conditions 59
2.7.1.1. Demonstrating Proper Teacher Behaviour 59
2.7.1.1.1. Teacher’s Enthusiasm 59
2.7.1.1.2. Teacher’s Commitment 62
2.7.1.1.3. Teacher’s Care and Acceptance 63
2.7.1.1.4. Teacher’s Immediacy 65
2.7.1.2. Creating a Pleasant Classroom Atmosphere 66
2.7.1.3. Promoting Group Cohesiveness and Setting Group Norms 67
2.7.2.Generating Initial Motivation 70
2.7.2.1. Familiarising Learners with L2 Culture and L2 Related Values 70
2.7.2.2. Increasing Learners’ Expectancy of Success 71
2.7.2.3. Promoting Learners’ Positive Goals (Goal-Orientedness) and Realistic Beliefs 74
2.7.2.4. Relating Language Learning to Learners’ Needs and Goals 77
2.7.3. Maintaining and Protecting Motivation 78
2.7.3.1. Making Learning Stimulating and Enjoyable 78
2.7.3.2. Diminishing Learners’ Anxiety and Building up Their Self-Confidence 79
2.7.3.3. Promoting Learners’ Autonomy 82
2.7.4. Encouraging Positive Self-Evaluation 83
2.7.4.1. Promoting Learners’ Motivational Attributions 83
2.7.4.2. Providing Learners with Motivational Feedback 85
2.7.4.3. Increasing Learners’ Satisfaction 86
2.8. Current Status of English in Iran 90
CHAPTER THREE- METHOD 92
3.1. Overview 93
3.2. Participants 93
3.3. Instruments 94
3.4. Design 95
3.5.Procedure 95
3.5.1.Piloting 95
3.5.2.Data collection 96
3.6. Data Analysis 97
CHAPTER FOUR- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 101
4.1. Overview 102
4.2. Research Question 1 102
4.2.1. Results 102
4.2.2. Discussions 109
4.3. Research Question 2 110
4.3.1. Results 110
4.3.2. Discussions 111
4.4. Research Question 3 112
4.4.1. Results 112
4.4.2. Discussions 114
4.5. Research Question 4 115
4.5.1. Results 115
4.5.2. Discussions 117
CHAPTER FIVE-CONCLUSION, PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 118
5.1. Overview 119
5.2. Conclusion 119
5.3.Pedagogical Implications 121
5.4.Suggestions for Further research 126
References 137
List of Appendixes
Appendix 1: English version of Frequency Questionnaires 127
Appendix 2: English version of Importance Questionnaires 130
Appendix 3: Farsi version of Frequency Questionnaires 133
Appendix 4: Farsi version of Importance Questionnaires 135
List of Tables
Table 3.1. Gender of Participants 93
Table 3.2. EFL Teaching Experience of Participants 93
Table 3.3. Importance and Frequency Survey Results: Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies 99
Table 4.1. Importance Questionnaires Results: Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies 103
Table 4.2. Comparison of the Final Rank Order of the Macro-strategies/scales Obtained in This Study and in Hungary (1998), Taiwan (2007) 110
Table 4.3. Frequency Questionnaires Results: Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies 112
Table 4.4. Pearson Correlation Results between Overall Means of Motivational Strategies of the Importance and Frequency Questionnaires 115
Table 4.5. Pearson Correlation Results between Macro and Micro-strategies of the Importance and Frequency Questionnaires 116
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Gardner’s (1985) Socio-Educational Model of Second Language Acquisition (Gardner, 1985, p.199) 15
Figure 2.2. Components of Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985, 144) 17
Figure 2.3. Tremblay and Gardner’s (1995) Model of L2 Motivation (cited in Dörnyei& Ushioda, 2011, p.48 19
Figure 2.4. Dörnyei’s (1994) Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei, 1994a, p.280) 24
Figure 2.5. Williams and Burden’s (1997) Framework of L2 Motivation (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.54) 26
Figure 2.6. Schematic Representation of the Three Mechanisms Making up the Motivational Task- Processing System (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.96) 28
Figure 2.7. Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) Process Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei and Ottó, 1998, p.48) 38
Figure 2.8. Gardner’s Conceptualisation of the Integrative Motivation (Gardner, 1986, p.87) 41
Figure 2.9. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (cited in Dörnyei & Usioda, 2011, p. 52) 52
Figure 2.10. The Components of Motivational L2 Teaching Practice (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.108) 58
Figure 2.11. Knight’s (2006) Model of Teacher’s Credibility (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.108) 61
List of Abbreviations
TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a Second Language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
SL: Second Language
FL: Foreign Language
L2: Second Language
SDT: Self-Determination Theory
AMTB: Attitude/Motivation Test Battery
ARCS: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction
CET: Cognitive Evaluation Theory
ESOL: English for Speakers of Other Languages
MOLT: Motivation Orientation of Language Teaching
COLT: Communication Orientation of Language Teaching
LSP: Language for Specific Purposes
NO: Number
M: Mean
SD: Standard Deviation
Diff: Difference
Corr.: Correlation
Sig.: Significance
CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION
1.1. Overview
In the field of second or foreign language (L2) teaching and learning, motivation is a significant factor that leads to the language learners’ success or failure. Motivation is the most used concept for explaining the failure or success of a learner. Dörnyei (1998) claimed that motivation is a key to learning. It is an inner source, desire, emotion, reason, need, impulse or purpose that moves a person to a particular action. Motivation has been regarded as one of the main factors that influence the speed and amount of success of foreign language learners. This issue seems to be highly related to the educational context of Iran where it is seen that many Iranian learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) fail to reach at least an average level of proficiency in English. As Dörnyei (2001b) claims, motivation is not a concrete concept; it is an abstract and hypothetical concept that is used to explain why people think and behave in certain situations as they do.
Students’ lack of motivation in language leaning contexts is a major problem for language teachers. According to Dörnyei (as cited in Marie-Jose´ Guilloteaux, 2013), a lot of researchers have tried to help teachers find ways of motivating language learners. In spite of the studies which have been done in this regard, the cultural and ethno-linguistic differences in various contexts were one of the important motives of doing this research.
Accordingly, the aim of this research is to evaluate (a) the extent to which a list of motivational strategies derived from Western educational contexts are perceived as relevant by Iranian EFL teachers and (b) the cross-cultural validity of those motivational strategies. To this effect, the present study builds on Dörnyei and Csizér ’s (1998) initial investigation in Hungary and on its modified replication conducted in Taiwan(Cheng and Dörnyei, 2007) and strives to find out how the same concept functions in Iran.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
Regarding the complex nature of motivation and its remarkable influence in second and foreign (L2) language learning, there are a growing number of studies focusing on motivation and motivational strategies in language teaching and learning settings. Dörnyei (as cited in Marie-Jose´ Guilloteaux, 2013) believes that until the early 1990s, most of the researchers studied motivation from a social psychological perspective. Much of the research in this period has been initiated and inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, who, together with their colleagues and students, grounded motivation research in a social psychological framework. Gardner and his associates also established scientific research procedures and introduced standardized assessment techniques and instruments, thus setting high research standards and bringing L2 motivation research to development (Ellis, 2008). Although Gardner’s motivation construct did not go unchallenged over the years, it was not until the early 1990s that a marked shift in thought appeared in papers on L2 motivation as researchers tried to reopen the research agenda in order to shed new light on the subject. The main problem with Gardner’s social psychological approach appeared to be, ironically, that it was too influential. While acknowledging unanimously the fundamental importance of the Gardnerian social psychological model, researchers were also calling for a more pragmatic, education-centered approach to motivation research, which would be consistent with the perceptions of practicing teachers and which would also be in line with the current results of mainstream educational psychological research. It must be noted that Gardner’s motivation theory does include an educational dimension and that the motivation test he and his associates developed, the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB), contains several items focusing on the learner’s evaluation of the classroom learning situation. However, the main emphasis in Gardner’s model and the way it has been typically understood is on general motivational components grounded in the social milieu rather than in the foreign language classroom. For example, the AMTB contains a section in which students’ attitudes toward the language teacher and the course are tested. This may be appropriate for measurement purposes, but the data from this section does not provide a detailed enough description of the classroom dimension to be helpful in generating practical guidelines. Finally, Gardner’s motivation construct does not include details on cognitive aspects of motivation to learn, whereas this is the direction in which educational psychological research on motivation has been moving during the last fifteen years.
Gardner’s social psychological approach has never clearly approached the classroom implications of motivation theory and it did not help language teachers in promoting their teaching practice. However around the 1990s, second and foreign language motivation research has seen an explosion of interest and the researchers have studied motivation from a more education-based perspective. In this period the authors’ attention were shifted to cognitive-situated view of motivation and situation-specific factors like learning and teaching situation were given more attention (Ellis, 2008). Authors like Dörnyei (2001a) gave prominence to more process-oriented view of motivation with an emphasis on dynamic nature of motivation and its temporal variation. Recently, some nearly similar studies on motivational strategies have been carried out by some authors like Dörnyei and Csizér ’s (1998) in Hungary, Cheng and Dörnyei (2007) in Taiwan, Hsu (2008) in Taiwan, Kassing (2011) in Indonesia, Gilloteaux and Dörnyei (2010) in South Korea, and Alrabai (2011) in Saudi-Arabia. Thus, the similarities and differences in the use of motivational strategies by English teachers in different educational contexts have been identified. Similar to the aforementioned studies, in the present study, it has been attempted to identify the top 10 strategies that Iranian EFL teachers perceive as the most important for promoting students’ L2 motivation in the language classroom. By comparing the results of this study with others conducted in different educational setting in different countries, we can recognize the motivational strategies which are culture dependent or vise-versa. In addition, we want to design practical techniques for educators and teachers of English in Iran that can be used to effectively implement motivational strategies in the L2 classroom. And again this study wants to identify the proportion with which Iranian English teachers perceive the list of motivational strategies important for language classes or the proportion with which they use these strategies in their actual language teaching situations. By making a complete list of motivational strategies that are more useful and practical in EFL context of Iran, the English teachers can make use of them for finding ways of eliciting, enhancing, and sustaining students’ motivation.
As mentioned earlier, Dörnyei and Cheng (2007) carried out a research to identify the use of motivational strategies among Taiwanese English teachers. They explored the frequency and the importance of the strategies used by Taiwanese English teachers. They compared these results with the findings of the nearly identical study conducted by Dörnyei and Csizér (1998) in Hungry. Similar to the aforementioned studies in Hungary and Taiwan, the current study is based on Dörnyei’s (2001b) framework of motivational teaching practice in the L2 classroom, which was based on the process-oriented model by Dörnyei and Otto (1998). Therefore, the frequency and the importance of the use of motivational strategies among Iranian EFL teachers will be studied to reveal the similarities and differences between Iranian teachers’ ratings of motivational scales and the other countries’. Whether unique cultures of different countries can influence the teachers’ ratings or strategy use or not? Which strategies are culture-specific or culture-dependent?
ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY
AT CENTRAL TEHRAN
GRADUATE SCHOOL
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
A THESIS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FORIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL)
THE COMPARATIVE IMPACT OF AUTONOMY AND CRITICAL THINKING ON EFL LEARNERS’ WRITING ACHIEVEMENT
ADVISOR:
-
BEHDOKHT MALL-AMIRI
READER:
-
HAMID MARASHI ZADEH
DECEMBER 2013
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ABSTRACT
The present study was an attempt to compare the effect of critical thinking techniques, and autonomy techniques on EFL learners’ writing achievement. To fulfill the purpose of the study, 74 participants of a total number of 100 learners at intermediate level who were studying in Kish Way Language School in Karaj were selected by means of a piloted PET. At the next stage, the 74 participants were divided into two experimental groups randomly so that one group would receive critical thinking techniques and the other autonomy practice as the two treatments. Prior to the start of the treatments, the scores of the writing section of the PET obtained by both groups were compared to make sure that the learners were homogeneous regarding their writing ability at the outset. At the end of the instructional period, both groups were given a writing posttest, and the comparison of their means revealed that the difference between the two groups’ writing posttest scores was non-significant , hence the null hypothesis failed to be rejected, implying that both groups benefited the treatments equally in their writing improvement.
Table of Contents
2.2.3. What Does Autonomy Mean? …………………………………………………….18
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUD AND PURPOSE
1.1. Introduction
Education and learning need some special techniques to indulge learners more deeply and efficiently- techniques that involve learners to become more independent and at the same time more thoughtful. It is a rather recent issue that educators are focusing their attention to critical thinking and autonomy on different skills, although “ critical thinking is as integral part of education and training in schools of foreign and second language instruction” ( Shangarffam & Mamipour, 2011, p.1 ), and so is autonomy.
Writing is one of the most effective ways of conveying ideas and thoughts to others, so learning to write is important because without it education, and more important, communications will be defective and will face problems.
According to Pemberton and Nix (2012), writing, autonomy, and critical thinking seem to be linked to each other, and proficiency in writing can be a sign of students’ autonomy, critical thinking ,and reasoning skills on the other hand. Critical thinking and autonomy are both considered desirable educational goals. Raya, Lamb, and Vieira (2007), mention that “The competence to think critically is coextensive with the notion of autonomy and self-sufficiency” (p.43). And in the same way, Little (1991) explains autonomy as an ability “for detachment, critical reflection, decision making, and independent action”(p.4). Therefore, it is important that teachers help students develop exploring ways for autonomy and critical thinking (Pemberton & Nix, 2012). Consequently, it seems that teaching learners to become autonomous and at the same time critical thinkers is probably a vital factor in their progress.
In line with the ongoing development in communication and definitely writing, the methods that teachers use to help foster learners’ autonomy, and make a “paradigm shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered instruction” (Jacobs & Farrell, 2002, 12) are considered very important ,and as Wu Li-li (2008) mentions with the growing need of language teaching in communication-oriented way nowadays, language teaching is facing a challenge and is being substituted by the learner-centered one. As a result, the learner-centered approach made the concept of learners’ autonomy emerge (Bagheri & Aeen, 2011).
Nowadays, learner autonomy is considered as “an unquestionable goal and integral part of language learning methodologies throughout the world. Large amounts of time, energy, and money are spent on its promotion and implementation” (Reinders, 2000, p.2). In fact learner autonomy seems to become important because of the motive that it creates in learners. Learning autonomy emphasizes language learners’ role as an active participant in his/her learning who has “a choice as what and how of the curriculum can be used in learning”, and also, “has a responsible feeling for his/her own learning” (Jacobs & Farrell, 2001, p.7).
According to Bagheri and Aeen (2011), although there are very trivial differences in the way that scholars and language teachers express their understanding of learners’ autonomy, they all agree with the importance of autonomy in motivating learners, and the result is better and effective work of autonomous learners. They added that autonomous learners are more initiative and creative in learning, and this leads to more useful classroom instruction. When learners have the freedom to choose the kind of curriculum and instruction, the result is choosing the best that matches their learning styles and preferences and finally more effective learning happens. According to Benson (2010), “When we talk about autonomy, we refer more to a certain kind of relationship between the student and the learning process.” (p.79). To be autonomous means “to be directed by considerations, desires, conditions, and characteristics that are not simply imposed externally upon one, but are part of what can somehow be considered one’s authentic self” (Christman, 2008, p.1).
Autonomy has been considered an important factor in educational settings during recent years.“The development of autonomy as an educational aim is the development of a kind of person whose thought and action in important areas of his life are to be explained by reference to his own choices, decisions, reflections, deliberations – in short, his own activity of mind” (Dearden, as cited in Cuypers, 2004, p.1). According to Candy, (1991, as cited in Thanasoulas, 2002), autonomy is a dynamic process that is considered as educational interventions, so it helps learners to gain more control over their own learning, and at the same time it motivates learners’ thinking critically about different issues during learning; however, learners differ in their learning strategies, interests, needs, ideas, and the way of thinking, therefore they develop varying degrees of autonomous and critical thinking throughout their learning processes. In this regard, instructing autonomy and critical thinking may help students to take charge of their own learning more efficiently.
On the other hand, writing is a means of developing and conveying ideas to others. Therefore, it needs creating meanings, doing it autonomously, and thinking critically about it. Wade ( as cited in Al-Hazmi, 2006) mentions that writing plays an essential role in critical thinking instruction, because it improves more self-reflection. White and McGovern (as cited in Bagheri & Aeen, 2011) believe that process approach of writing creates self-critical ones because it makes students reflect on their understanding, to communicate their feelings about what they know, and how they are experiencing their learning.
According to Siegel (as cited in Cuypers, 2004, p.4), critical thinking is a highly significant educational notion. An investigation done by Alsagoff (2008, as cited in Jimenez, Ramos, Rosales, & Soraya, 2010, p.18) characterizes “ critical thinking as the intellectual disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action”. And all the mentioned factors plus autonomy are necessary factors in writing effectively.
Simpson and Courtney (2002) state that in critical thinking one tries to determine what to do or what to believe, and to apply critical thinking skills to one another. It means, one analyzes one’s own inferences, explains one’s own interpretation or evaluates one’s own analysis. On the other hand, Holec (1981) defines autonomy as the “ability to take charge of one’s own learning”(p.3) that can be in line with one’s critical thinking and maybe with the same impact on one’s learning. Critical thinking is also considered as a cognitive ability that is affected by multiple skills such as identifying, understanding, and analyzing an issue by using inferences through top-down and bottom-up strategies to validate the reliability of claims and arguments(Pithers & Soden, 2000). This suggests that critical thinking is a complex concept that can be used to support assumptions, information, and claims in EFL writing ( Barnawi, 2010, p.2). As a result, all factors affecting writing are considered important, and autonomy and critical thinking are two variables that can be in relation to writing.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
There is a great lack in researches on the comparative impact of autonomy and critical thinking , although studies on the impact of two of the variables separately – autonomy on writing ( Bagheri & Aeen, 2011), or critical thinking on writing (Mamipour & Shangarffam, 2011) – showed a significantly positive impact .
Learning is considered as a long process of gaining knowledge which needs great effort, and traditionally all the time students were asked to gain knowledge by listening to their teachers and following their instructions (Zhang & Wu, 2004, as cited in Li Yahong, 2009, p.1), and also teachers traditionally controlled everything in the classroom and they believed transmitting knowledge to students as their main duty (Zhang, 2006). As a result, they spoke most of the classroom time while students were expected to listen to them, take notes, and memorize their notes (Zhang, 2006), rather than thinking critically about what they are taught and developing their own ideas by talking to their classmates and teachers or even raising some novel questions about different issues.
It seems that teachers are usually in a higher position to encourage their students to do what they think is the best for their students’ learning ; whilst students’ abilities to take charge of their own learning alongside their teachers’ guidance, and think critically about different issues are ignored. It seems that it does not create much sense of satisfactory in students in their learning, because there are a lot of groans about the language teaching system in Iran and to the researcher’s knowledge, a lot of them believe they could have better performance if they were allowed to have more freedom in choosing learning strategies and discuss issues critically. .
Several studies have been done to check the effects of critical thinking on language learning, such as Naeini (2005) in which she found that the experimental group (group with critical thinking technique) outperformed the control group. On the other hand, according to some contemporary researches such as the one conducted by Bagheri and Aeen (2011), autonomy can also prepare a chance for learners to set their learning goals, and try to achieve them. Marashi and Jafari (2012), also found that critical thinking positively affects learners’ writing.
The researcher as a teacher has observed that students who use autonomy and critical thinking techniques during learning are more successful than those who do not use these two techniques in learning all the four skills especially writing. The researcher observed that the students with the two mentioned techniques think deeply about the conveyed information and believe themselves more responsible for their own learning; therefore, they try to follow the same procedure in their writing. The observation stimulated this study to investigate which of the two procedures, critical thinking or autonomous learning, could improve EFL learners’ writing achievement more.
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